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=__**A Simplistic View of our Universe**__=

__By Ben O'Callaghan__
__(Thursday April 21st)__

__Mr. Loken__
__**Table of Contents:**__ __**1)Our Solar System**__ __**2)How Stars Work**__ __**3)Our Exploration of the Cosmos**__ =**__Our Solar System__**=
 * -Its place in the Milky Way**
 * -Its structure and style.**
 * -The Hertzprung and Russel Diagram**
 * -Lifetime, from Nebulae to Neutron Stars and Black Holes.**
 * -The Hubble Telescope**
 * -The International Space Station**
 * -The Canadarm**
 * __4)Scientists, and How They Affected the Perception of our Universe.__**
 * -Albert Einstein and the theory of relativity.**
 * -Edwin Hubble: looking beyond our galaxy.**
 * -Georges Lemaître and the Big Bang Theory.**
 * 5)__Interesting Places in our Universe and Where They Are.__**
 * -Algol**
 * -The peanut star**
 * -The Crab Nebula**

**__Where Are We?__**
-Our Solar System, while it may seem enormous to us, is in reality an incredibly part of our milky way galaxy. The 8 planets, pluto, and the asteroid belt, orbit around the sun in eliptical fashion, and our sun, in turn, is only one, in more than two hundred billion stars orbiting the supermassive black hole at the galactic centre. Our galaxy, is approximately 100,000 light years across, and consists of a number of arms that is debated by several astronomers. Our sun is placed within the Orion spiral arm of the galaxy, orbiting around 26,000 light years away from the center of the milky way.

**__What is Our Solar System Made of? What's in it and Where?__**
-In our solar system, the mass distribution is very one sided. Our sun comprises 99.85% of all matter in our solar system. The planets make up another 0.135%, and Jupiter, the largest planet, has more than double the mass of all the other planets combined. The remaining 0.015% is from satelittes, such as comets, asteroids, meteors, and space debris in the //interplanetary medium//. The interplanetary medium is whatever matter is floating in the "empty space" between the planets. Various forms of energy, as well as interplanetary dust and gas, are contained within this medium. The dust is small, often microscopic bits of rock, and the gas; charged particles radiating from the sun, also known as "solar wind". When the solar wind from our star crosses the solar wind from other stars at a hypothetical boundary (heliopause) approximately 100 astronomical units from the sun, it meets the interplanetary medium. This is far beyond the orbit of neptune, and everything within it is known as the heliosphere. Far beyond the orbit of pluto, dedicated after dutch astronomer Jan Oort, is the Oort Cloud, 30,000 Astronomical Units to 1 light year away from the sun, that is a spherical collection of what could be 1 trillion or more comets.

=__How Stars Work__=

-The Hertzprung and Russel Diagram shown above, is a representation of the relationship between temperature, colour, and luminosity within the majority of known stars. In the diagram, there is a clearly definable pattern, stretching from the bottom right corner to the top left, known as the //Main Sequence//. The Main Sequence comprises most known stars, although there are possibly hundreds of billions of dwarf stars that we cannot detect, which remain outside of it. One noticeable feature, is that along with luminosity, or as labeled on this diagram "Absolute Magnitude", size increases as well. This is expected because we know luminosity as the amount of light given off and at what distance from us. The larger the star, the more light. Another factor is how temperature affects colour, which is clearly shown from blue to red on the diagram. The closer to zero degrees you get, the more red, and in the opposite way, the hotter a star, the more blue. Our sun, is a yellow star sitting comfortably at about 6000 degrees Kelvin, or 5726 degrees Celsius, and just above +5 Absolute Magnitude. In the top right corner, we see the "giants". Giants are created when stars near the end of their lifetime. They are cooler, and therefore more red, but at the same time, far more luminous because of their drastic size. White dwarfs, although incredibly hot, more so than our sun, are also much, much smaller, and therefore are less luminous; ergo they are found in the bottom left region. -In a stars lifetime, there are several phases. To list them in respective order, nebula, protostar, star, giant, and then, determined by size, either a planetary nebula to a dwarf star, OR a supernova to a Neutron star or black hole. The Lifetime of our Sun is a decently long one. However the length of a star's life is determined by its luminosity and size, the larger the star, the shorter its lifespan on average. This is because the larger stars need to fuse more material in order to retain that size and level of brightness. Smaller stars, on the otherhand, much like red dwarfs, can last several billion years before fading, because they are small and dim. Stars begin as a nebula, an enormous cloud of dust, gas, and energy, floating in space. Eventually, mutual gravity pulls particles together, until a protostar is formed. Currently this protostar is not flaming, however it is rising in heat, as it pulls more and more nebula matter into its core. Eventually, it reaches the point where its mass and heat, allow it to transform into a star, somewhere in the main sequence. Beginning with a star like our sun, we will present the three lifecycles known of stars. After the protostar becomes a medium sized yellow star such as our sun, it begins the nuclear fusion process. For several billion years, our sun will fuse hydrogen, its most abundant element, into helium. This process creates its energy, and keeps the sun bright. Sooner or later though, our star runs out of hydrogen, it is at this point it begins to swell in size and change in colour to red. It fuses helium atoms, creating further energy greater than before, and becomes a red giant. When our sun can no longer fuse any materials into heavier elements, it decreases in size, becoming a planetary nebula, which will transition to a neutron star (if its size is large enough) or a white dwarf. Going back to our nebula and its protostar, if the mass was not large enough to become a yellow star, it still begins the fusion process, and becomes a red dwarf. A far more simplistic lifestyle, the red dwarf burns for several billion years, then stops fusing, and becomes a white, then a black dwarf. Lastly, the most complicated lifecycle. A massive star. These stars are often blue, and several hundred or thousand times larger than our sun. When these end the hydrogen fusion, and fuse heavier elements, they too become giants. However, these giants are far far greater in size, named red supergiants. Supergiants are enormous stars, which, when they finish fusing and growing in size, become a supernova, the universe's 2nd largest explosion. Incredible amounts of energy, heat, and material are thrown out by the explosion, and when it collapses under its own gravity, it can become either a neutron star, or one of the universe's greatest mystery, a black hole. -Neutron Stars, are incredibly small, INCREDIBLY dense remnants of previous stars. To put it in perspective, on earth, one teaspoon of neutron star weighs 1 billion tons. Their gravity is 2 x 10 to the 11th power times that of Earth, and their magnetic fields are several million times more powerful. -Black holes occur when the Supernova's gravity is so powerful that when it collapses back in on itself, the result is a "hole" in the fabric of space and time. Explained somewhat ironically by Einstein, a firm non-believer in black holes, time and space are like fabrics layed over each other in opposite directions and held flat. When something heavy is dropped into the fabric, it pulls down a "hole" that in turn pulls other things toward it. The more matter falls into that "hole" the larger it becomes, and the more matter it can in turn pull in. The pull of a black hole is so strong that nearly all spiral and eliptical galaxies orbit around their own supermassive black hole center.

=**__Humans Explore the Night Sky__**=


 * 1) The Hubble Space Telescope, named after famous astronomer Edwin Hubble, and launched in 1990, orbits the Earth 353 miles above our heads. Traveling at a speed of about 5 miles a second, it completes a full orbit every 97 minutes. The Hubble Telescope has allowed us to peer far into the depths of our universe never thought possible. It has uncovered several huge discoveries, that "turned astronomical conjectures into concrete certainties" [Hubblesite.org] These discoveries have, for example, have more accurately allowed scientists to estimate the universe's age, from 10-20 billion years, narrowed down to 13 or 14 billion. It has allowed astronomers to view all stages of galaxies, and better understand them. It assisted in the discovery of dark energy, the force that keeps our universe expanding. These are only a few of many many more discoveries made by the telescope.
 * 2) The Hubble Space Telescope was built to solve a very well-known problem of ground telescopes, namely the Earth's atmosphere. Because of shifting conditions in the atmosphere, groundbased telescopes, however advanced, have a distorted view. The means to solve this, by putting a telescope beyond our atmosphere.
 * 3) The Hubble is a //Cassegrain Reflector// telescope. What this means is that it operates by reflecting light from a big mirror, onto a smaller mirror which focuses it through a hole in the large mirror and into its scientific instruments. (See Diagram) Hubble's large mirror is 2.4 metres in diameter, the more light it can collect, the more powerful the telescope.
 * 4) Hubble's scientific instruments are all designed to see the universe in a different way. To outline three, the //Wide Field Camera 3// (WFC3) //Cosmic Origins Spectrograph// (COS) and the //Advanced Camera for Surveys// (ACS).
 * The WFC3 is a camera that can see three forms of light; near-ultraviolet, near-infrared, and visible light, but not at the same time. It has the greatest resolution and field of view of all Hubble's instruments. This equipment is one of the newest, and will be "used to study dark energy and dark matter, the formation of individual stars and the discovery of extremely remote galaxies previously beyond Hubble's vision." [Hubblesite.org]
 * The COS, another new instrument, is a //spectrograph//. Spectographs split incoming light from light sources into colours, which can tell us what material is making what light at that source. What this means, is that with this instrument, we can know what each star and light source universe-wide, is made of. Spectrographs can also tell us things such as temperature, motion, and density of light sources.
 * Lastly, the ACS, sees visible light, and was designed to observe matter from the early years of the universe. ACS detects objects that are most distant in the universe from us, as well as tracks dark matter, the evolution of galaxies and clusters, and looks for massive planets.

5. The Hubble Space Telescope cost an initial 1.5 billion US dollars, and by 1999, it had risen to a 3.8 billion dollar investment. However, according to an HST space science chief, that "equates to two cents a week per american taxpayer over that period of time". For the amount of knowledge this has granted us, it is certainly worth its price.

=**__The International Space Station (ISS)__**= The ISS is a product of several years building and construction in 16 countries (USA, Canada, Japan, Russia, Brazil and 11 countries from the European Space Agency). It has been in construction since 1998, and habitated since Nov 2, 2000, when the first crew arrived. Since then, 196 individuals have visited the station from more than 8 different countries. It has completed more than 68 1/2 thousand orbits, and covered a distance of around 1.7 billion miles. Since Nov 2nd 2010, there have been 67 Russian vehicles, 34 space shuttles, one Japanese and one European vehicle launched to the station. The space station is the size of a US football field, and weighs just under 828,000 pounds. Its living space is more than a regular 5 bedroom home, as well as a gymnasium and two lavatories. In space, however, the lavatories do not have sinks. Astronauts and Cosmonauts aboard the station must wash their hands without water, using a washcloth. All water on the station is recycled, filtered, and reused. Although it might sound slightly unhygienic, the water is actually a lot cleaner than most people on Earth drink. The inside of the station is never humid because all sweat and water in the air has to be removed and processed to keep instruments safe and maximize water efficiency. The purpose of the ISS is to conduct experiments in the fields of biology, chemisty, physics, etc. in an area with less gravity, and to observe the cosmos. Each expedition conducts several experiments in the months it spends on the station. The data is easily accessible to scientists on earth, who use it to better understand human anatomy, the effects of microgravity on the human body, and how it can relate to human conditions on Earth. Canada's largest contribution to the project: the Canadarm.

=**__The CANADARM__**= The Canadarm, or to be technical the Shuttle Remote Manipulator System (SRMS) is one of the most revolutionary and important advances in space engineering. A crucial part of the space shuttle entrusted to the Canadian engineers in 1975, was an enormous step for space exploration. The Canadarm's purpose was to replace the dangerous spacewalks astronauts had to take to fix parts of the shuttle or space station. One of its greatest achievements is being able to "catch" objects moving through space, in a zero-gravity environment. After 50 missions and 7000 orbits it has never malfunctioned, even with astronauts and cosmonauts having to use it to move slowly and precisely over millimeters, or very quickly and just as precisely over several meters. The Canadarm is used for everything, from fixing the famous Hubble Telescope, to removing ice from the shuttles. It is an absolute essential in the completion of the ISS. Each piece of the "arm" had to be very carefully constructed, such as the wrist, shoulder, and elbow, and these joints equipped with JODs; motors which allowed the Canadarm to move like a human's. In the shoulder, the arm has to JODs to move it up and down, as well as side to side. The elbow has a third JOD so it can move up and down, and the wrist has a movement in up and down, side to side, //and// rotation. Each motor is independent, which means the Canadarm can maneuver excellently, each joint working in different speeds and directions, and each JOD in each joint doing the same. However, unlike a human arm, the SRMS does not have a hand at the end, but instead a cylindrical "end effector" to catch payloads. Inside the end effector is a wire noose which latches onto objects, such as giant solar arrays. Astronauts are said to control the arm, but this is in fact, a misnomer. Astronauts give the command to a computer that controls the arm, which through a serious of calculations, tells the arm where to move, which joints are moving, and what angles and speeds they move at.

=**__Three Scientists who changed the UNIVERSE__**= =**__Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity:__**= -Earlier, in a paragraph about black holes, we lightly touched on the theory of relativity created by Albert Einstein who was a Jewish physicist. The theory explained how space-time was curved, and introduced the famous equation E=mc squared. This equation defines energy and mass, after proving that light inside a vacuum (c squared) remains constant. What many people do not realize is that Einstein's theory is actually divided into two parts, the "Special Theory of Relativity", as well as the "General Theory of Relativity". -The Special Theory deals specifically with movement, essentially whether motion is relative or absolute, defined by Einstein's theory as relative. To put this in perspective, you stand still on the side of a highway, watching a bus approach you at 100 km an hour. Likewise, to a person on the bus, even though they know it is the bus that is moving in space towards you, you appear to be moving in the opposite direction at equal speed. This is defined as //Galilean Relativity.// //-//The better known General Theory improved upon Newton's already proved theory of gravitation. Newton's theory lacked an ability tto explain how different sizes and masses in objects affected its gravitational pull through empty space. Albert Einstein solved this deficiency, by explaining that objects move in straight lines through space and time, but we see them as //accelerating// because space-time is, itself, curved. Much like the coin drop funnels, the closer the coin gets to the middle, the faster and faster it moves, because the less and less space it must "orbit". -Einstein's theory would also state that space was not static, that it did not remain the same, nor does it today. It is changing constantly, however this could not be proved until Edwin Hubble looked out of his telescope in 1923. =**__Edwin Hubble and the Expanding Cosmos:__**= -Sir Isaac Newton, discoverer of gravity had created a paradox. By discovering mutual gravity, he knew that if the universe were finite, that is, if it had an end, that the mutual gravity of objects should have pulled all the mass of the universe together, and since it obviously hadn't, the universe must be infinite. Einstein encountered the same problem, his equations showed that the universe MUST be expanding or collapsing, but because of what we could see, he assumed it was static. It is at this point that Edwin Hubble comes in. -Edwin Hubble, one of the worlds most famous astronomers, made a remarkable discovery. Working in the Carnegie Observatories at Pasadena California, he focused his telescopes on the previously known "Andromeda Nebula", and discovered what was previously thought to be a collection of reflective dust within our universe, was //really// a collection of a massive number of stars, He found stars known as "Cepheids" which were known, and could be measured for distance. After he calculated, he discovered that the andromeda "nebula" was actually an entirely different //galaxy// from the milky way! Until this point, it was assumed that our entire universe was contained within the milkyway, so this discovery completely disproved an accepted scientific belief. -Hubble's greatest achievement, however, was proving that the universe was expanding, as Einstein suggested. Using the spectrometer, he observed the redshift of stars and galaxies, varies depending on their momentum and direction. He irefutably proved that the universe was in fact expanding, and galaxies were moving away from our own. In this way, the paradox of a finite vs. infinite universe was solved. A universe that increased in size infinitely but had a finite size at every moment moment in time. This also proved that at one point, the entire universe was contained within a single point, -At this point, we are left with three posibilities for our universe from this point. Based on the speed of expansion and amount of matter in the universe, we could end up with a "closed, flat, or open" -In a closed universe, expansion stops, and after a certain time, collapses back in on itself, perhaps eventually creating another big bang. -In a flat universe, it continues expanding forever, but the rate of expansion slows to zero percent after an infinite amount of time. -In an open universe, it continues expanding forever and the rate of expansion does not slow nearly as quickly. -In all three cases, the force slowly "degrading" the expansion is gravity.

=__**Georges Lemaître and the Universe's Biggest Explosion:**__= -Georges Lemaître was a Belgian priest, astronomer, and most importantly, physicist, and is rightly titled "The Father of the Big Bang Theory." While studying to become a priest, he became fascinated by math and science, and pursued them in his spare time. His greatest interest was in Einstein's laws of gravitation, which was published in 1915. Lemaitre concluded that if Einstein's theory was true, and at this point it was well supported, that the universe must be expanding. After earning his PhD in 1927, he proposed the theory, that in all directions, the universe was the same, the same laws, the same materials, but it was NOT static. At this point, not many scientists supported him, not even Einstein, who's theory it was based off of. Two years later, Hubble made his astounding discovery that galaxies were moving away at incredibly rapid speeds. Lemaitre used this discovery as proof of concept for his theory. If all the galaxies were moving away, at some time long ago, they all had to be together at a single point. He called this a "day without yesterday" and believed it to be where science and religion finally met. A creation, absolutely provable by science, explaining the universe and everything in it, that also left room for an omnipotent being to create it in the first place. The theory was eventually named "big bang" because according to Lemaitre, there had to be an explosion from a "primordial atom" that contained everything in the universe. -Of course, this theory, after being supported, only opened the field for other questions, and the topic is still pursued today. Another prediction of Lemaitre that has come true is that in order for there to once have been a primordial atom, the universe must still contain some background radiation. This was proved in 1964 when Arno Penzias and Robert wilson discovered cosmic microwave background radiation. =**__Algol, the Demon Star:__**= -Algol is a star that can be found in the Perseus constellation. Shown here, the binary star system of Algol. Algol has been thought to be an unlucky star in several mythologies, especially Greek. In Greek myth, Algol was thought to be medusa's head, which Perseus used to turn Cetus to stone. This was probably because ever 2.867 days, Algol goes through it's eclipse, dimming from normal, to only 30 percent or less of it's luminosity. This happens when the less dense star reaches the point in its orbit where it comes between earth and Algol's blue star. There is also a lesser dim when the brighter star passes in front of the dimmer one. Algol is said to be the first recorded eclipsing binary star of this kind. -Algol is 93 lightyears from earth.

=**__The Peanut Star:__**= -Here we see another double star or binary star. However, there is a crucial difference in this system, namely, that the stars orbit so closely together, that they share material, and appear to be a giant "peanut" in space. This has been classified as "//yellow// supergiants" and explains an odd kind of supernova. Yellow giants are meant to exist for a very short time, between massive blue stars and red supergiants, never as a result of two yellow stars, around 15 to 20 times our sun each, combining. -There are two peanut stars, one 13 million light years away that was discovered first, and then one much closer only 230,000 ly away, found after reviewing previous data and comparing it to the newly found star system.

=**__The Crab Nebula:__**= -The Crab Nebula is the only supernova remnant that is visible by normal power telescopes. It is the nebula remnant from the supernova of 1054 AD, recorded by Chinese astronomers. Charles Messier, another astronomer, was scanning the skies for Haley's comet one night when he noticed a white, candle-flame shaped light. He noticed it did not move against the stars, and it was the first to be recorded in his "comet-like-objects" chart. The Nebula is located within the constellation Taurus, the bull. In 1844, it was sketched by William Parsons, and the sketch resembled a Crab, hence the Crab Nebula. Centered in the nebula, is a neutron star, or pulsar, discovered by Jocelyn Bell, that emits radiation 30 times a second. 3 NASA telescopes, including the Hubble, proved that this radiation is fueling the expansion of the Crab Nebula. -The Crab Nebula is located only 6000 estimated light years from Earth.

===I sincerely hope you enjoyed this brief, and nowhere near complete tour of the universe. To find out more about any of the topics discussed above, research them, or go to one of the following links. Have an astronomical day.===

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